托福句子简化题难题汇总

OG

Applied Arts and Fine Arts

因果

Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits. 2. Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Functional applied-art objects cannot vary much from the basic patterns determined by the laws of physics.

○The function of applied-art objects is determined by basic patterns in the laws of physics.

○Since functional applied-art objects vary only within certain limits, arbitrary decisions cannot have determined their general form.

○The general form of applied-art objects is limited by some arbitrary decision that

is not determined by the laws of physics.

The Origins of Cetaceans

让步

The structure of the backbone shows, however, that Ambulocetus swam like modern whales by moving the rear portion of its body up and down, even though a fluke was missing. 10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Even though Ambulocetus swam by moving its body up and down, it did not have a backbone.

○The backbone of Ambulocetus, which allowed it to swim, provides evidence of its missing fluke.

○Although Ambulocetus had no fluke, its backbone structure shows that it swam like modern whales.

○By moving the rear parts of their bodies up and down, modern whales swim in a

different way from the way Ambulocetus swam.

Desert Formation

因果

The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process. 10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Desertification is a significant problem because it is so hard to reverse and affects large areas of land and great numbers of people.

○Slowing down the process of desertification is difficult because of population growth that has spread over large areas of land.

○The spread of deserts is considered a very serious problem that can be solved only if large numbers of people in various countries are involved in the effort.

○Desertification is extremely hard to reverse unless the population is reduced in

the vast areas affected.

Early Cinema

因果

He refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that if he made and sold projectors, then exhibitors would purchase only one machine-a projector-from him instead of several.

3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence from the passage? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Edison was more interested in developing a variety of machines than in developing a technology based on only one.

○Edison refused to work on projection technology because he did not think exhibitors would replace their projectors with newer machines.

○Edison did not want to develop projection technology because it limited the number of machines he could sell.

○Edison would not develop projection technology unless exhibitors agreed to

purchase more than one projector from him.

Aggression

对比

For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively. 8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○People who believe that they are fighting a just war act aggressively while those who believe that they are fighting an unjust war do not.

○People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified are more likely to act aggressively than those who believe differently.

○People who normally do not believe that aggression is necessary and justified may act aggressively during wartime.

○People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified do not necessarily act aggressively during wartime.

Artisans and Industrialization

并列

Apprentices were considered part of the family, and masters were responsible not only for teaching their apprentices a trade but also for providing them some education and for supervising their moral behavior. ○Masters demanded moral behavior from apprentices but often treated them irresponsibly.

○The responsibilities of the master to the apprentice went beyond the teaching of a trade.

○Masters preferred to maintain the trade within the family by supervising and educating the younger family members.

○Masters who trained members of their own family as apprentices demanded excellence from them.

Swimming Machines

One potential problem is that opening the mouth to breathe detracts from the streamlining of these fishes and tends to slow them down. ○These fishes often have a problem opening their mouths while swimming.

○The streamlining of these fishes prevents them from slowing down.

○The streamlining of these fishes tends to slow down their breathing.

○Opening the mouth to breathe can reduce the speed of these fishes.

Nineteenth-Century Politics in the United States

对比

The Whigs were strongest in the towns, cities, and those rural areas that were fully integrated into the market economy, whereas Democrats dominated areas of semisubsistence farming that were more isolated and languishing economically. ○Whigs were able to attract support only in the wealthiest parts of the economy because Democrats dominated in other areas.

○Whig and Democratic areas of influence were naturally split between urban and rural areas, respectively.

○The semisubsistence farming areas dominated by Democrats became increasingly isolated by the Whigs' control of the market economy.

○The Democrats' power was greatest in poorer areas while the Whigs were strongest in those areas where the market was already fully operating.

The Expression of Emotions

The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters in stories that called for basic emotional responses. ○The Fore's facial expressions indicated their unwillingness to pretend to be story characters.

○The Fore were asked to display familiar facial expressions when they told their stories.

○The Fore exhibited the same relationship of facial expressions and basic emotions that is seen in Western culture when they acted out stories.

○The Fore were familiar with the facial expressions and basic emotions of characters in stories.

Geology and Landscape

转折

Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in geological terms. ○When they are relatively young, hills and mountains successfully resist the destructive forces of nature.

○Although they seem permanent, hills and mountains exist for a relatively short period of geological time.

○Hills and mountains successfully resist the destructive forces of nature, but only for a short time.

○Hills and mountains resist the destructive forces of nature better than other types of landforms.

Loie Fuller

让步

Although her early theatrical career had included stints as an actress, she was not primarily interested in storytelling or expressing emotions through dance; the drama of

her dancing emanated from her visual effects.

○Fuller was more interested in dance’s visual impact than in its narrative or emotional possibilities.

○Fuller used visual effects to dramatize the stories and emotions expressed in her work.

○Fuller believed that the drama of her dancing sprang from her emotional style of storytelling.

○Fuller’s focus on the visual effects of dance resulted from her early theatrical training as an actress.

Green Icebergs

转折

One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion when blue ice is illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun, but green icebergs stand out among white and blue icebergs under a great variety of light conditions. ○One explanation notes that green icebergs stand out among other icebergs under a great variety of light conditions, but this is attributed to an optical illusion.

○One explanation for the color of green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion that occurs when the light from a near-horizon red Sun shines on a blue iceberg.

○One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to a great variety of light conditions, but green icebergs stand out best among other icebergs when illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun.

○One explanation attributes the color of green icebergs to an optical illusion under special light conditions, but green icebergs appear distinct from other icebergs under a great variety of light conditions.

TPO-1

Groundwater

转折

If the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held.

○Surface tension is not strong enough to retain drops of water in rocks with large

pores but it strong enough to hold on to thin films of water in rocks with small pores.

○Water in rocks is held in place by large pores and drains away from small size pores through surface tension.

○Small pores and large pores both interact with surface tension to determine whether a rock will hold water as heavy drops or as a thin film.

○If the force of surface tension is too weak to hold water in place as heavy drops, the water will continue to be held firmly in place as a thin film when large pores exist.

The Origins of Theater

转折

For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness.

○A society’s rites were more likely to be retained in the oral tradition if its myths were admired for artistic qualities.

○The artistic quality of a myth was sometimes an essential reason for a society to

abandon it from the oral tradition.

○Some early societies stopped using myths in their religious practices when rites ceased to be seen as useful for social well-being.

○Myths sometimes survived in a society’s tradition because of their artistic qualities even after they were no longer deemed religiously beneficial.

Timberline Vegetation on Mountains

因果

Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes.

○Because of their deformed shapes at high altitudes, trees are not likely to be seriously harmed by the strong winds typical of those altitudes.

○As altitude increases, the velocity of winds increase, leading to a serious decrease in the number of trees found at high altitudes.

○The deformed shapes of trees at high altitudes show that wind velocity, which increase with altitude, can cause serious hardship for trees.

○Increased wind velocity at high altitudes deforms the shapes of trees, and this may cause serious stress for trees.

TPO-3

Architecture

因果，对比

In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them—even while building materials have changed dramatically. ○Unchanging physical laws have limited the size and strength of buildings that can be made with materials discovered long ago.

○Building materials have changed in order to increase architectural size and strength, but physical laws of structure have not changed.

○When people first started to build, the structural methods used to provide strength and size were inadequate because they were not based on physical laws.

○Unlike building materials, the methods of support used in architecture have not

changed over time because they are based on physical laws.

Depletion of the Ogallala Aquifer

转折

Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year. ○Despite the current impressive size of the Ogallala aquifer, the region’s climate keeps the rates of water addition very small.

○Although the aquifer has been adding water at the rate of only half a centimeter a year, it will eventually accumulate enough water of fill Lake Huron.

○Because of the region’s present climatic conditions, water is being added each year to the aquifer.

○Even when the region experiences unfortunate climatic conditions, the rates of addition of water continue to increase.

The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems

否定

Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform.

○Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness.

○Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity.

○Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments.

○A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms.

TPO-4

Deer Populations of the Puget Sound

递进

In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive. ○Arthur Einarsen’s longtime family with the Pacific Northwest helped him discover areas where deer had an increase in suitable browse.

○Arthur Einarsen found that deforested feeding grounds provided deer with more and better food.

○Biologist like Einarsen believe it is important to find additional open areas with suitable browse for deer to inhabit.

○According to Einarsen, huckleberry and vine maple are examples of vegetation that may someday improve the nutrition of deer in the open areas of the Pacific Northwest.

Cave Art in Europe

因果

Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave

art.

○Upper Paleolithic people, like many contemporary peoples, believed that if they drew a human image in their cave art, it would cause death or injury.

○Many contemporary people believe that the drawing of a human image can cause death or injury, so they, like Upper Paleolithic people, rarely depicted human figures in their cave art.

○If Upper Paleolithic people, like many contemporary peoples, believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, this belief might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art.

○Although many contemporary peoples believe that the drawing of a human image can cause death or injury, researchers cannot explain why Upper Paleolithic people rarely depicted human figures in their cave art.

Petroleum Resources

Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas.

○Higher temperatures and pressures promote sedimentation, which is responsible

for petroleum formation.

○Deposits of sediments on top of organic matter increase the temperature of and pressure on the matter.

○Increase pressure and heat from the weight of the sediment turn the organic remains into petroleum.

○The remains of microscopic organisms transform into petroleum once they are buried under mud.

TPO-5

Minerals and Plants

This scenario begins with the planting of hyperaccumulating species in the target area, such as an abandoned mine or an irrigation pond contaminated by runoff.

○Before considering phytoremediation, hyperaccumulating species of plants local to the target area must be identified.

○The investigation begins with an evaluation of toxic sites in the target area to determine the extent of contamination.

○The first step in phytoremediation is the planting of hyperaccumulating plants in the area to be cleaned up.

○Mines and irrigation ponds can be kept from becoming contaminated by planting hyperaccumulating species in targeted areas.

The Origin of the Pacific Island People

转折

Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals.

○ Some people have argued that the Pacific was settled by traders who became lost while transporting domesticated plants and animals.

○ The original Polynesian settlers were probably marooned on the islands, but they may have been joined later by carefully prepared colonization expeditions.

○ Although it seems reasonable to believe that colonization expeditions would set out fully stocked, this is contradicted by much of the evidence.

○ The settlement of the Pacific islands was probably intentional and well planned rather than accidental as some people have proposed.

The Cambrian Explosion

转折

At one time, the animals present in these fossil beds were assigned to various modern animal groups, but most paleontologists now agree that all Tommotian fossils represent unique body forms that arose in the early Cambrian period and disappeared before the end of the period, leaving no descendants in modern animal groups.

○ The animals found in the Tommotian fossil bed were once thought to belong to a variety of modern animal groups, but now they are thought to have descended from a single group.

○ Animals in the Tommotian fossil beds were initially assigned to modern animal groups but are now thought to belong to groups that emerged and died out during the Cambrian period.

○ Though at first they thought otherwise, paleontologists now agree that the animals in the Tommotian have body forms from which modern animals have descended.

○ It is unclear whether the Tommotian fossils from the early Cambrian period represent unique body forms or whether they should be assigned to various modern animal groups.

TPO-6

Powering the Industrial Revolution

让步

Only the last of these was suited at all to the continuous operating of machines, and although waterpower abounded in Lancashire and Scotland and ran grain mills as well as textile mills, it had one great disadvantage: streams flowed where nature intended them to, and water-driven factories had to be located on their banks whether or not the location was desirable for other reasons.

○ Running water was the best power source for factories since it could keep machines operating continuously, but since it was abundant only in Lancashire and Scotland, most mills and factories that were located elsewhere could not be water driven.

○ The disadvantage of using waterpower is that streams do not necessarily flow in places that are the most suitable for factories, which explains why so many water-powered grain and textile mills were located in undesirable places.

○ Since machines could be operated continuously only where running water was abundant, grain and textile mills, as well as other factories, tended to be located only in Lancashire and Scotland.

○ Running water was the only source of power that was suitable for the continuous operation of machines, but to make use of it, factories had to be located where the water was, regardless of whether such locations made sense otherwise.

William Smith

转折

But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. ○The discovery of regional differences in the sequences of rocks led geologists to believe that rock types could someday become reliable time markers.

○Careful analysis of strata revealed that rocks cannot establish geological time because the pattern of rock layers varies from place to place.

○Smith's catalogs of rock strata indicated that the sequences of rocks are different

from place to place and from region to region.

○Because people did not catalog regional differences in sequences of rocks, it was believed that rocks could never be reliable time markers.

Infantile Amnesia

因果

Physiological immaturity may be part of why infants and toddlers do not form extremely enduring memories, even when they hear stories that promote such remembering in preschoolers. ○Incomplete physiological development may partly explain why hearing stories does not improve long-term memory in infants and toddlers.

○One reason why preschoolers fail to comprehend the stories they hear is that they are physiologically immature.

○Given the chance to hear stories, infants and toddlers may form enduring memories despite physiological immaturity.

○Physiologically mature children seem to have no difficulty remembering stories they heard as preschoolers.

TPO-7

The Geologic History of the Mediterranean

因果

As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean.

○The strait of Gibraltar reopened when the Mediterranean and the Atlantic became connected and the cascades of water from one sea to the other caused crustal adjustments and faulting.

○The Mediterranean was dramatically refilled by water from the Atlantic when crustal adjustments and faulting opened the Strait of Gibraltar, the place where the two seas are joined.

○The cascades of water from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean were not as spectacular as the crustal adjustments and faulting that occurred when the Strait of Gibraltar was connected to those seas.

○As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting and the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar, the Atlantic and Mediterranean were connected and became a single sea with

spectacular cascades of water between them.

Ancient Rome and Greece

Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls. ○The regularity and power of stone walls inspired Romans attempting to unify the parts of their realm.

○Although the Romans used different types of designs when building their walls, they used regular controls to maintain their realm.

○Several types of control united the Roman realm, just as design and cement held Roman walls together.

○Romans built walls to unite the various parts of their realm into a single entity, which was controlled by powerful laws.

Agriculture, Iron, and the Bantu Peoples

对比

Unlike in the Americas, where metallurgy was a very late and limited development, Africans had iron from a relatively early date, developing ingenious furnaces to produce the high heat needed for production and to control the amount of air that reached the carbon and iron ore necessary for making iron.

○While American iron makers developed the latest furnaces, African iron makers continued using earlier techniques.

○Africans produced iron much earlier than Americans, inventing technologically sophisticated heating systems.

○Iron making developed earlier in Africa than in the Americas because of the ready availability of carbon and iron ore.

○Both Africa and the Americas developed the capacity for making iron early, but African metallurgy developed at a slower rate.

TPO-8

Extinction of the Dinosaurs

Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic).

○The fossil record suggests that there was an abrupt extinction of many plants and animals at the end of the Mesozoic era.

○Few fossils of the Mesozoic era have survived in the rocks that mark the end of the Cretaceous.

○Fossils from the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic up to the beginning of the Cenozoic era have been removed from the layers of rock that surrounded them.

○Plants and animals from the Mesozoic era were unable to survive in the Cenozoic era.

Running Water on Mars?

转折

But detractors maintain that the terraces could also have been created by geological activity, perhaps related to the geologic forces that depressed the Northern Hemisphere far below the level of the south, in which case they have nothing whatever to do with Martian water.

○But detractors argue that geological activity may be responsible for the water associated with the terraces.

○But detractors argue that the terraces may have been formed by geological activity rather than by the presence of water.

○But detractors argue that the terraces may be related to geological forces in the Northern Hemisphere of Mars, rather than to Martian water in the south.

○But detractors argue that geological forces depressed the Northern Hemisphere so far below the level of the south that the terraces could not have been formed by water.

TPO-9

Colonizing the Americas via the Northwest Coast

Fladmark’s hypothesis received additional support form from the fact that the greatest diversity in native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americas, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest.

○Because this region has been settled the longest, it also displays the greatest diversity in Native American languages.

○Fladmark's hypothesis states that the west coast of the Americas has been settled longer than any other region.

○The fact that the greatest diversity of Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americans lends strength to Fradmark's hypothesis.

○According to Fladmark, Native American languages have survived the longest along the west coast of the Americas.

Reflection in Teaching

对比

There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect – for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit. ○The practice of being reflective is no longer simply a habit among teachers but something that is externally motivated.

○Most teachers need to explore ways to form the habit of reflection even when no external motivation exists.

○Many aspects of the motivation to reflect have not been studied, including the comparative benefits of externally motivated and habitual reflection among teachers.

○There has not been enough exploration of why teachers practice reflection as a

habit with or without external motivation.

The Arrival of Plant Life in Hawaii

It is significant that the earliest living thing that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities.

○Some of the earliest important examples of symbiosis—the close cooperation of two or more living things—occur in island communities.

○Symbiosis—the close cooperation of pairs or small groups of living organisms—is especially important in these island environments.

○The first organisms on these islands worked together closely in a relationship known as symbiosis, which is particularly important on islands.

○It is significant to note that organisms in the beginning stages of the development of island life cannot survive without close cooperation.

TPO-10

Chinese Pottery

因果

The tradition of religious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearly delineated than that of stonewares or porcelains, for it embraces the old custom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images and architectural ornament. ○ While stonewares and porcelains are found throughout most historical periods, religious sculpture is limited to the ancient period.

○ Religious sculpture was created in most periods, but its history is less clear than that of stonewares or porcelains because some old forms continued to be used even when new ones were developed.

○ While stonewares and porcelains changed throughout history, religious sculpture remained uniform in form and use.

○ The historical development of religious sculpture is relatively unclear because religious sculptures sometimes resemble earthenware architectural ornaments.

Variations in the Climate

Over long periods of time, substances whose physical and chemical properties change with the ambient climate at the time can be deposited in a systematic way to provide a continuous record of changes in those properties overtime, sometimes for

hundreds or thousands of years.

○ Because physical and chemical properties of substances are unchanging, they are useful records of climate fluctuations over time.

○ For hundreds or thousands of years, people have been observing changes in the chemical and physical properties of substances in order to infer climate change.

○ Because it takes long periods of time for the climate to change, systematic changes in the properties of substances are difficult to observe.

○ Changes in systematically deposited substances that are affected by climate can indicate climate variations over time.

TPO-11

Orientation and Navigation

He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. ○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings displayed a lack of directional sense and restless movements.

○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings were unable to orient themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route.

○ Experiments revealed that the restless movement of caged starlings had no clear direction.

○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings' orientation was accurate unless the weather was overcast.

TPO-12

Which Hand Did They Use?

Most engravings, for example, are best lit from the left, as befits the work of right-handed artists, who generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush.

○ Right-handed artists could more easily have avoided casting shadows on their work, because engravings in prehistoric caves were lit from the left.

○ The tips of engraving tools and brushes indicate that these instruments were used by right-handed artists whose work was lit from the left.

○ The best lighting for most engravings suggests that they were made by right-

handed people trying to avoid the shadow of their hands interfering with their work.

○ Right-handed artists try to avoid having the brush they are using interfere with the light source.

Transition to Sound in Film

让步

Though it may be difficult to imagine from a later perspective, a strain of critical opinion in the 1920s predicted that sound film would be a technical novelty that would soon fade from sight, just as had many previous attempts, dating well back before the First World War, to link images with recorded sound. ○It was difficult for some critics in the 1920s to imagine why the idea of sound film had faded from sight well before the First World War.

○As surprising as it seems today, some critics in the 1920s believed that the new attempts at sound films would fade just as quickly as the attempts made before the First World War.

○Though some early critics thought that sound film would fade, its popularity during the First World War proved that it was not simply a technical novelty.

○Although some critics predicted well before the First World War that sound film would be an important technical innovation, it was not attempted until the 1920s.

TPO-13

Types of Social Groups

因果

Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity. 8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○ Sociologists think that cultural patterns establish connections between the individual and the larger society.

○ Sociologists believe that individuals with a sense of oneness bridge the gap between society and primary groups.

○ Sociologists think primary groups contribute to social solidarity because they

help maintain a society's cultural patterns.

○ Sociologists believe that the cultural patterns that provide social solidarity arise as bridges from primary groups.

Biological Clocks

让步

Indeed, stability of the biological clock's period is one of its major features, even when the organism's environment is subjected to considerable changes in factors, such as temperature, that would be expected to affect biological activity strongly. 5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Stability, a feature of the biological clock's period, depends on changeable factors such as temperature.

○A major feature of the biological clock is that its period does not change despite significant changes in the environment.

○A factor such as temperature is an important feature in the establishment of the

biological clock's period.

○Biological activity is not strongly affected by changes in temperature.

Methods of Studying Infant Perception

Therefore, when observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities, care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant. 6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Researchers using observational assessment techniques on infants must not overgeneralize and must base their conclusions on data from many studies.

○On the basis of the data from one or two studies, it seems that some infants develop a particular perceptual ability not observed in others.

○To use data from one or two studies on infant's perceptual abilities, it is necessary to use techniques that will provide conclusive evidence.

○When researchers fail to make generalizations from their studies, their observed data is often inconclusive.

TPO-14

Children and Advertising

Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations.

8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Rational appeals in advertising are certainly limited by children's emotional immaturity and the indirect nature of their associations.

○Indirect appeals to children's psychological states or associations can limit the effectiveness of rational appeals in advertising.

○Rational appeals play a much smaller role in advertisements for children than emotional appeals and psychological associations do.

○Rational appeals in advertising aimed at children should certainly be limited until the children are emotionally and psychologically ready.

Maya Water Problems

The explanation is that the Maya excavated depressions, or modified natural depressions, and then plugged up leaks in the karst by plastering the bottoms of the depressions in order to create reservoirs, which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins and stored it for use in the dry season.

8 Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Southern Maya populations obtained the water they needed for the dry season by collecting and storing rainwater in sealed depressions.

○The Maya are credited with creating methods for modifying natural rainwater and storing it.

○Leaks in the karst caused difficulties in the creation of reservoirs, which were needed to store water for the dry season.

○Southern Mayans were more successful at collecting rain than storing it during

dry seasons.

Pastoralism in Ancient Inner Eurasia

转折、因果

Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills. 11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Despite the fact that wealth is relatively evenly distributed in pastoral societies, gender inequality still exists because only men can acquire military skills and social status.

○Inequalities of gender existed in pastoralist societies until most communities began to require women to possess the same skills as men and take part in the military.

○Inequalities of gender in pastoralist societies were caused by steep hierarchies of wealth and differences in military training between men and women.

○In pastoral societies, gender inequality is comparatively mild because wealth is relatively evenly distributed and women have to learn most of the same skills that men do.

TPO-15

A Warm-Blooded Turtle

因果

In a countercurrent exchange system, the blood vessels carrying cooled blood from the flippers run close enough to the blood vessels carrying warm blood from the body to pick up some heat from the warmer blood vessels; thus, the heat is transferred from the outgoing to the ingoing vessels before it reaches the flipper itself. 8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○In a turtle's countercurrent exchange system, outgoing vessels lie near enough to ingoing ones that heat can be exchanged from the former to the latter before reaching the turtle's flippers.

○Within the turtle's flippers, there is a countercurrent exchange system that allows

colder blood vessels to absorb heat from nearby warmer blood vessels and then return warmed blood to the turtle's body.

○In a countercurrent exchange system, a turtle can pick up body heat from being close enough to other turtles, thus raising its blood temperature as it passes them.

○When a turtle places its flippers close to its body, it is able to use its countercurrent exchange system to transfer heat from the warmer blood vessels in its body to the cooler blood vessels in its flippers.

Mass Extinctions

American paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski, who have studied extinction rates in a number of fossil groups, suggest that episodes of increased extinction have recurred periodically, approximately every 26 million years since the mid-Cretaceous period.

6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Based on their studies of extinction rates of numerous fossil groups, paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski have determined that mass extinctions occur about every 26 million years.

○David Raup and John Sepkoski studied extinction rates of numerous fossil groups and suggest that mass extinctions during the Cretaceous period continued for 26 million years.

○Studies that paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski conducted of various fossil groups have revealed that extinction rates have increased over the past 26 million years.

○The studies conducted by paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski of the fossil remains of species suggest that the extinction rate of species started to increase by the middle of the Cretaceous period.

Glacier Formation

因果

Glaciers move slowly across the land with tremendous energy, carving into even the hardest rock formations and thereby reshaping the landscape as they engulf, push, drag, and finally deposit rock debris in places far from its original location.

11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○As a glacier moves, it leaves behind rock formations that have been engulfed, pushed, and dragged by the glacier.

○Glaciers reshape the landscape by carving into rock and transporting the resulting debris to distant locations.

○Glaciers carve the hardest rock formations with great energy and slowly reshape them into debris.

○The tremendous energy of slowly moving glaciers transports and finally deposits rock debris into large rock formations.

TPO-16

Trade and the Ancient Middle East

As among tribes people, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. 8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Tribes people were comfortable forming personal relationships with merchants, who, like them, were bound by their promises to one another.

○Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful about whom they trusted and often conducted business with people they knew personally.

○While trade among merchants relied somewhat on regulation, among tribes people trade was based on personal relationships and careful character evaluation.

○Because tribes people were bound only by their promises to one another, personal relationships were formed only after careful weighing of character.

Development of the Periodic Table

Ramsay then studied a gas that was present in natural gas deposits and discovered that it was helium, an element whose presence in the Sun had been noted earlier in the spectrum of sunlight but that had not previously been known on Earth. 11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Ramsay found evidence of helium in the spectrum of sunlight before he discovered that the element was also contained in natural gas deposits on Earth.

○Ramsay thought he had discovered a new element present in natural gas deposits, but he was wrong since that element had been previously observed elsewhere on Earth.

○After Ramsay had discovered a new element, called helium, in natural gas deposits on Earth, he also found evidence of its presence in the Sun.

○Ramsay later discovered that helium, an element that was already known to be present in the Sun, was also present in natural gas deposits on Earth.

TPO-17

Europe's Early Sea Trade with Asia

The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create Spices were the most sought-after commodities.

4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○The high cost to investors of developing trade by sea between East and West indicates the great size of the profits that such trade could produce.

○The profits that could be created by sea trade between East and West were immense compared with the investment required to develop such trade.

○The increase in commercial activity by using sea routes reflects the importance trade between East and West had for investors seeking great profits.

○Because people made large investments in sea commerce between East and West. They expected to make immense profits.

Animal Signals in the Rain Forest

转折

In the green-to yellow lighting conditions of the lowest levels of the forest, yellow and green would be the brightest colors, but when an animal is signaling, these colors would not be very visible if the animal was sitting in an area with a yellowish or greenish background.

7. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○When an animal is signaling in an area with green-to yellow lighting condition. It’s signal will not be visible if the background is brightly lit.

○In the lowest levels of the forest, an animal's signals are not easily seen unless there is a yellowish or greenish background.

○In the green-to-yellow lighting conditions at the lowest levels of the forest, only signals that are themselves green or yellow will be bright enough to be seen in most areas.

○Although green and yellow would be the brightest colors near the forest floor, these colors would make poor signals whenever the forest background was also in the green-to-yellow range.

Symbiotic Relationships

比较

In the second case, pollinators (insects, birds) obtain food from the flowering plant, and the plant has its pollen distributed and seeds dispersed much more efficiently than they would be if they were carried by the wind only. 9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○The relationship between flowering plants and pollinators provides pollinators

with food and flowers with efficient reproduction.

○In some cases birds obtain food from the seeds that are dispersed in the wind.

○The wind not only helps the flowers distribute their seeds but enables birds to find more food.

○Animals and insects are more effective in distributing pollen and seeds than the wind.

TPO-18

Industrialization in the Netherlands and Scandinavia

The key factor in the success of these countries (along with high literacy, which contributed to it) was their ability to adapt to the international division of labor determined by the early industrializers and to stake out areas of specialization in international markets for which they were especially well suited. 10.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○ The early industrializes controlled most of the international economy, leaving

these countries to stake out new areas of specialization along the margins.

○ Aided by their high literacy rates these countries were able to claim key areas of specialization within established international markets.

○High literacy rates enabled these countries to take over international markets and adapt the international division of labor to suit their strengths.

○ The international division of labor established by the early industrializers was suited to these countries, a key factor in their success.

The mystery of yawning

According to conventional theory, yawning takes place when people are bored or sleepy and serves the function of increasing alertness by reversing, through deeper breathing, the drop in blood oxygen levels that are caused by the shallow breathing that accompanies lack of sleep or boredom.

1.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○ It is the conventional theory that when people are bored or sleepy, they often experience a drop in blood oxygen levels due to their shallow breathing.

○ The conventional theory is that people yawn when bored or sleepy because yawning raises blood oxygen levels, which in turn raises alertness.

○ According to conventional theory, yawning is more likely to occur when people are bored or sleepy than when they are alert and breathing deeply.

○ Yawning according to the conventional theory, is caused by boredom or lack of sleep and can be avoided through deeper breathing.

TPO-19

The Roman Army's Impact on Britain

In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy.

1.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Many Roman soldiers remained in Britain after conquering it, and their presence had a strong influence.

The new Roman province of Britain seemed to awaken in the first century A.D. as the local economy improved.

Camps, fortifications, and economic change contributed to the Roman conquest of Britain.

With the conquest of Britain by Roman troops, the Roman Empire gained considerable economic strength.

Succession, Climax, and Ecosystems

With \"climax,\" \"biome,\" \"superorganism,\" and various other technical terms for the association of animals and plants at a given locality being criticized, the term \"ecosystem\" was more and more widely adopted for the whole system of associated organisms together with the physical factors of their environment. 11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Unlike the terms “climax”, “biome,” and “superorganism,” which refer to the particular association of plants and animals at a given location, the term “ecosystem” refers specifically to the physical factors within an environment.

The terms “climax,” “biome,” “superorganism,” and “ecosystem” all refer to the system of plants and animals in an associated environment, but some are more controversial than others.

When the older terms of ecology became too technical, they were replaced by the more popular and more widely used term “ecosystem.”

The term “ecosystem” gradually replaced discredited terms for the combination of a physical environment and the plants and animals living together in it.

TPO-20

Westward Migration

The West had plenty of attractions: the alluvial river bottoms, the fecund soils of the rolling forest lands, the black loams of the prairies were tempting to New England farmers working their rocky, sterile land and to southeastern farmers plagued with soil depletion and erosion

5.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Because the West had more rivers and forests than the East, its soil was more

productive.

The fertile soils of the West drew farmers from regions with barren soils.

Farmers living in western areas of the United States were more affected by soil erosion than farmers living in eastern areas.

The soil in western areas of the United States was richer than soil in eastern areas.

Early Settlements in the Southwest Asia

Many complex factors led to the adoption of the new economies, not only at Abu Hureyra, but at many other locations such as 'Ain Ghazal, also in Syria, where goat toe bones showing the telltale marks of abrasion caused by foot tethering (binding) testify to early herding of domestic stock. 12.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

In many areas besides Abu Hureyra, complex factors led to new economies including the herding of domestic stock.

In 'Ain Ghazal and Syria, domestic stock was more important than it was at Abu

Hureyra.

Once early methods of herding animals improved, new economies were adopted.

Many complex theories attempt to explain the early domestication of animals.

Fossil Preservation

并列和条件

The empty shell of a snail or clam may be left behind, and if it is sufficiently durable and resistant to dissolution, it may remain basically unchanged for a long period of time.

4.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

When snail or clam shells are left behind, they must be empty in order to remain durable and resist dissolution.

Although snail and clam shells are durable and resist dissolving, over time they slowly begin to change.

Although the soft parts of snails or clams dissolve quickly, their hard shells resist dissolution for a long time.

Empty snail or clam shells that are strong enough not to dissolve may stay in their original state for a long time.

TPO-21

Geothermal Energy

因果

Geothermal energy is in a sense not renewable, because in most cases the heat would be drawn out of a reservoir much more rapidly than it would be replaced by the very slow geological processes by which heat flows through solid rock into a heat reservoir.

11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Heat flows through solid rock very slowly, so it takes a very long time for geological processes to produce a reservoir of geothermal energy.

Geothermal energy is not renewable because heat flows very slowly through solid rock into or out of a heat reservoir.

The heat quickly removed from a heat reservoir is replaced so slowly by geological processes that geothermal energy is not practically speaking, renewable.

In most cases, heat travels into a heat reservoir so slowfy that it is a much quicker process to remove the heat from a reservoir than to replace it.

The Origins of Agriculture

因果

The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources. 5.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

The resources needed by the growing hunting and gathering population increased rapidly once temperatures rose.

Dramatic temperature increases and the simultaneous growth of the hunting and gathering population led to the need for more resources.

Higher temperatures led to the existence of increased resources, thus enabling the hunting and gathering population to grow.

The dramatic temperature increase occurred during the few years when abundant resources allowed the hunting and gathering population to grow.

TPO-22

Spartina

Numerous insects occupy the marsh, feeding on living or dead cordgrass tissue, and redwing blackbirds, sparrows, rodents, rabbits, and deer feed directly on the cordgrass. 3.Which of the sentences below best express the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Insects feed only on dead cordgrass, while most other marsh inhabitants feed on live cordgrass.

The marsh is a good habitat for insects, but a relatively poor one for birds and animals.

Although cordgrass provides food for birds and animals, it gives insects both food and a place to live.

Cordgrass provides food for numerous insects, birds, and other animals.

The Birth of Photography

因果

Because the medium was so prolific, in the sense that it was possible to produce a multitude of images very cheaply, it was soon treated as the poor relation of fine art, rather than its destined successor. 8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Photography did not replace other fine arts because people felt the image looked cheap in relation to the other arts.

Photography was not considered a true art because people could use it to create

many images cheaply.

Photography was so cheap and readily available that it could be purchased by people who were too poor to purchase fine art.

Photography not only spread quickly but also was a cheap art form and so became true successor of fine arts rather than its poor relation.

The Allende Meteorite

When broken open, Allende stones are revealed to contain an assortment of small, distinctive objects, spherical or irregular in shape and embedded in a dark gray matrix (binding material), which were once constituents of the solar nebula—the interstellar cloud of gas and dust out of which our solar system was formed.

3.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Allende meteorites were formed when constituents of the interstellar cloud of gas and dust got trapped inside small, roughly spherical objects and these objects became bound together in a dark gray matrix.

Inside Allende meteorites is a dark gray matrix that binds together small spherical

or irregular objects formed from the interstellar cloud of gas and dust out of which the solar system was made.

By breaking open Allende meteorites, scientists were able to find out what the solar nebula was made of.

Allende meteorites were filled with material formed almost entirelyfrom interstellar gas and dust.

TPO-23

Seventeenth-Century Dutch Agriculture

因果

Importing the grain, which would have been expensive and time consuming for the Dutch to have produced themselves, kept the price of grain low and thus stimulated individual demand for other foodstuffs and consumer goods. 2. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○ Buying imported grain led to the Dutch demanding that other foodstuffs and

consumer goods be imported.

○ Because the Dutch were able to import inexpensive grain, they had money available to create a demand for other food products and consumer goods.

○ Keeping the price of grain low was a primary goal of the Dutch at a time when they could not produce enough grain to provide for all their needs.

○ The demand for other foodstuffs and consumer goods forced the Dutch

Rock Art of the Australia Aborigines

The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panaramitee style—a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface.

6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave ways or leave out essential information

○ The oldest rock art sites have simpler motifs than the best known sites of Panaramitee North.

○ Because motifs primarily associated with the Panaramitee region are common in the oldest sites the term Panaramitee style has become the general term for rock art of this type.

○ Because the Panaramitee style is so common in the older sites, researchers have described it most extensively.

○ The motifs carved in the rocky surface of the Panaramitee region make up the oldest form of rock art discovered in Australia.

Tpo24

Breathing During Sleep

因果

The amount of air exchanged is even lower in REM than NREM because, although breathing is more rapid in REM, it is also more irregular, with brief episodes of shallow breathing or absence of breathing.

11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Because breathing is more shallow and irregular in REM than in NREM, less air is exchanged in REM.

○Breathing in NREM is less effective than breathing in REM because of irregular episodes of rapid breathing during NREM.

○Because breathing is more rapid in NREM sleep than in REM sleep, breathing often becomes shallow.

○Although REM has brief episodes of shallow breathing or lack of breathing, breathing is more rapid than in NREM.

Moving into Pueblos

Some scholars expand on this idea by emphasizing a corresponding need for arable land to feed growing numbers of people: construction of small dams, reservoirs, terraces, and field houses indicates that farmers were intensifying their efforts during the 1200s. 6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

○Some scholars even claim that the intensification of farmers' various efforts

during the 1200s led to further population growth and the consequent need for more arable land.

○Evidence of intensifying agriculture in the 1200s indicates a need to feed a larger population and so extends the argument that a growing population was the cause of the move to pueblos.

○During the 1200s, farmers met the demand for more arable land, but they also succeeded in cultivating existing land more intensively with the help of agricultural construction projects.

○Some scholars feel strongly that the construction of small dams, reservoirs, terraces, and field houses in the thirteenth century is independent evidence for growth in the number of people.