语言学复习重点

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.

2. The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴

The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)

The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）

The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.（形态学）

The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）

The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）

The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学） The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）

The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.

Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）

3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的几对基本概念

Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写

If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should

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not say, it is said to be prescriptive.

Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not. Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时

The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.

Speech and writing 口头语与书面语

Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written. Langue and parole 语言和言语

The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用 Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950‟s.

He defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules. 4.What is language? 语言的定义

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as

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a purely human institution. Chomsky‟s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view. 5. Design features 语言的甄别性特征

Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.

Arbitrariness 语言的随意性

Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.

Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity 语言的创造性

Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. Duality 语言的二重性

The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning. Displacement 语言的移位性

Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性

While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.

Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学

1. The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介

Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.

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Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to居先 writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.

For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.

The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）. 2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？

Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages.

语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。 There are three branches of phonetics. They are:

Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from the speaker‟s point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.

Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学），it studies the speech sounds from the hearer‟s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.

Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学），it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.

3. Organs of speech 发音器官 The pharyngeal cavity咽腔 the throat The oral cavity 口腔 the mouth The nasal cavity 鼻腔 the nose

The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉) before it reaches any of the cavities.

Lying across the glottis (声门) are the vocal cords (声带). Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound.

The tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.

4.Orthographic representation of speech sounds –broad and narrow

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transcriptions 语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标 IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标

There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad transcription (宽式音标). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号), called narrow transcription (窄式音标). 实例：

对pit/spit中p音的比较：

pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：[phit] spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[spit] 对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：

Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[li:f] Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]

Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~] Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II] 5. Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类

a) Classification of English consonants<辅音> 英语辅音的分类 按发音方式分

Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g] Fricative 擦音：[f] [v] [s] [z] [W] [T] [s] [V] [h] Affricate 塞擦音：[tF][dV] Liquid流音：[l] [r] Nasal鼻音：[m] [n] [N] Glide滑音：[w] [j] 按发音部位分

Bilabial双唇音：[p] [b] [m] [w] Labiodental唇齿音：[f] [v] Dental齿音：[W] [T]

Alveolar齿龈音：[t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r] Palatal硬腭音：[V][tF][dV][i] Velar软腭音：[k] [g] [N]

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Glottal声门音：[h]

b) Classification of English vowels 英语元音的分类 按舌头在口中的位置分：

Front vowel前元音：[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a] Central vowel中元音：[[:] [[] [Q] Back vowel后元音：[u:] [u] [R:] [R] [a:] 按口形的大小分：

Close vowel闭元音：[i:] [i] [u:] [u] Semi-close vowel半闭元音：[e] [[:] Open vowel开元音：[A] [a]

Semi-open vowel半开元音：[[] [R:] [Q] [R] [a:] 按唇形是否为圆分

Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音：[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a] [[:] [[] [Q] [a:] rounded vowel圆唇元音：[u:] [u] [R:] [R] 按语音的长短分

Long vowel长元音[i:] [[:][a:] [u:] [R:] Short vowel短元音[i] [e] [A] [a] [[] [Q] [u] [R]

在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音，包括：[ei] [ai] [[u] [a u] [Ri ] [i[] [e[] [u[] 6. Phonology 音系学

Phonology and phonetics 音系学和语音学

Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.

Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;

Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.

语音学研究人类所有的语言。音系学研究某种特定语言的语音系统。 Example:

单词leap和peel中的[l]音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，

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如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。

音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。

7. Phone, phoneme, and allophone 语音（音素）、音位、音位变体

Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.

语音是语言学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。语音是一个语音单位或一个切分成分，它并不一定能区分意义。

Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.

音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。一个音位在语音上被具体体现为一个特定的语音（音素）。

按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p/ /t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如[p] [t].

The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones<音位变体> of that phoneme.

音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现，同一个音位在不同的语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。

8. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对

Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme.

相似的语音之间可能有两种关系。两个相似的语音如果是两个区别性音位，它们在意义上形成对立，如果是同一音位的变体，在意思上不形成对立。

The former is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning.

音位对立是指不同音位之间的关系，它们可以出现在不同的语音组合的同一位置，产生意义差别，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。

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The latter is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme. They only occur in different environments.

互补分布是指音位变体之间的关系，同一个音位的不同变体在语音组合中永远不会出现在相同的位置上，它们没有区别意义的作用，如top中的送气的[p]和stop中不送气的[p]。

A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.

确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是，看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。如果产生了，那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位。为此，一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。 When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.

最小对立对是指除了出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合，如[pen]和[ben]。

9. Some rules in phonology 几条音系规则 A) sequential rules 系列规则

The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.

在一种特定的语言中，语音的组合是受规则制约的，这些规则叫做系列规则。 重要的规则：

I. 如果单词以[l] 或[r] 为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，如rude, last, leap

II. 如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是/p//t//k/，第三音位必定是/l//r//w/，如strict, splendid, spring

III. 塞擦音[tF][dV]和咝音[s] [z] [F] [V] 后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如teach变复数为teaches[ti:tFiz]。

IV.制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同的，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。 B) assimilation rules 同化规则

The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.

同化规则即通过“模仿”一个系列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音素变得相似。

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重要的规则：

I. 元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。如bean/ green 中的[i:]音。

II. 在一个单词中，鼻音[n]所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如correct –incorrect。

III. 语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为[n]音同化成了[m]音。 C) deletion rules 省略规则

The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 省略规则告诉我们什么时候一个语音尽管在拼写中存在，但在发音中却省略了。 重要的规则：

I. 如[g]音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。如sign中的[g]音不发音。而在加了后缀的signature中，[g]却要发音的。

10. Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonation 超切分特征：重音、声调和语调

Distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.

区别性特征也可以在由两个或多个音位切分成分所组成的系列中体现出来。出现在切分层面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。它们时音节、单词和句子等语言单位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音调和语调。 A) Stress 重音 重要的规则：

I.一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。如import。

II.英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成分是次重音。如hotdog。 B) Tone 声调

英语不是声调语言，这里不作研究。 C) Intonation 语调

When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,

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they are collectively known as intonation.

当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时，这些音素合起来叫做语调。

English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three.

英语中有四种基本语调：降调、升调、降升调、升降调。最常用的是前三种。

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学

Definition定义

Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.

形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。

1. Morpheme 语素

The smallest meaningful unit of language语言最小的意义单位。

The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.

语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。 2. Types of morphemes 语素的分类 a) Free morphemes 自由语素

Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.

自由语素是的意义单位，能够独自自由使用，当然也可以和其它语素结合使用。 b) Bound morphemes 黏着语素

Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素－自由语素或黏着语素－结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。

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3. Types of bound morphemes 黏着语素的分类

Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 词根和词缀。

A root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.

词根被看作是词的一部分，它有清楚、明确的意思，但不能单独存在，它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。

Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational 屈折词缀和派生词缀

Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:

屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。现在英语中的屈折词缀包括：

-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数

-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示现在时的第三人称单数 -(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时 -ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示进行时

-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容词和副词比较级 -est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级 -„s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名词的所有格

Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.

派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。 实例：

Tolerate 词根toler- ＋ 词缀-ate Quickly 自由语素quick ＋ 词缀-ly

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Carelessness 自由语素care ＋词缀-less 形成的派生词careless ＋词缀-ness Affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前缀和后缀

Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.

前缀改变词干的意思，但通常不改变原词的词性。“be-” 和“en (m)-”是例外。

Suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.

后缀加在词干的末尾，改变原词的意思，并且在多数情况下，改变原词的词性。 4. Morphological rules 形态学规则

Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.

形态学规则主要指英语中通过派生方式构成新词的构词规则，即将词缀加到词干上去构成新词的规则。学习者必须掌握这些规则，但又要注意不能过分概括这些规则，以免生造出不存在的单词。 5. Types of compound words 复合词的类型 Noun + noun 名词＋名词 如：handbook, sunshine Adjective +noun 形容词＋名词 如：highway, sweetheart

Adjective +noun +ed 形容词＋名词＋ed 如：white-haired, green=eyed Verb +noun 动词＋名词 如：pickpocket, driveway Adverb +noun 副词＋名词 如：downtown, upgrade Noun +verb 名词＋动词 如：toothpick, snowfall Verb +adverb 动词＋副词 如：follow-up, kick-off

Noun +adjective 名词＋形容词 如：world-famous, life-long -ing form +noun -ing形式＋名词 如：dining-room, reading-glasses

Other forms 其它形式 如：go-between, father-in-law, upbringing, have-nots, thank-you note 6. Features of compounds

1) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.

在拼写上，复合词既可以写成一个词，中间加连字符或不加连字符，也可以分开写。如armchair, follow-up, thunder bird

2) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of

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speech of the second element.

在语法上，复合词的词性一般取决于复合词中第二个成分的词性。如icy-cold是形容词，head-strong也是形容词，greenhouse是名词。而例外的情况有：follow-up, crackdown, kickoff都是名词而不是副词，而toothpick, snowfall, facelift都是名词而不是动词。

3) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.

在语意上，复合词的意义具有习语特性，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分的意义的总和。如hotdog, greenhouse等。

4) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.

在语音上，复合词的重音总是在第一个构成成分上，而次重音在第二个构成成分上。

这一点可以帮助我们用来区分两种-ing的形式，一种是作为名词前修饰语的-ing形式，另一种是作为复合词的前一部分。如running dog 重音在running上，表示“走狗”这一-ing形式＋名词的复合词。如重音在dog上，则表示running用来修饰dog，意为“还在跑的狗”。

Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学

1.What is Syntax?

Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.

句法学研究语言的句子结构。该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。句法是一个规则系统。

2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统

Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.

The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number

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of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.

句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统（称为语言能力）。

任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的，但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。 3. The basic components of a sentence 句子的构成

A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject（主语）and its predicate（谓语）which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.

句子是一个结构和完整的语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。 The referring expression（被指称的对象）, such as a person, a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, is grammatically called subject. A subject is usually a noun or a noun phrase. The part of sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.

主语是指句子中被指称的对象，如人、物、事、概念等。主语通常由名词或名词词组构成。谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词，表述存在、动作或出现，限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的。 4．Types of sentence 句子的类型 a)The simple sentence 简单句 A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.

简单句由一个子句构成，该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且构成句子。 b)The coordinate sentence 并列句

A coordinate sentence contains two clause joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”but””or”.

并列句包含两个子句，由and, but, or 等并列连词连接。

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c)The complex sentence 复合句 A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. That is, the two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.

复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句，其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的，一个句子从属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句，而包含子句的子句被称为主句。

5. The linear word order of a sentence 句子的线性词序

When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. Meanwhile, they are heard or read as arranged one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear.

我们说出或写下一个句子，其中的词语是按次序一个接一个出现的。同时，对方也是一个接一个次序听到这个词语的。句子中词语的这种有次序的排列表明，句子的结构是线性的。 6. The hierarchical structure of a sentence 句子的层次结构

The superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly structured. Sentence structure is hierarchical in nature.

组成句子的单词表面上的线性排列并不意味着句子仅仅是线性结构的。句子实际上是有层次结构的。

7. Tree diagrams of sentence structure 句子结构树形图

The hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constituent structure. 句子的层次结构可以用各组成部分的树形图来很好地说明。见课文67－70页。

In addition, the hierarchical structure of sentences can also be illustrated by using brackets and subscript labels.

另外，句子的层次结构还可以用括号和写在下角的标记来标示。见课文71页。 8. Lexical categories 词类

Words are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech. A language has major and minor lexical categories. Major lexical categories are open categories that new words are constantly added. Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the

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number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for. English has four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories.

所有的词都有某种属性，即词性。词可以分为主要词类和次要词类。主要词类不断有新词加入，它是开放词类，而次要词类是封闭的，因为这类词的词项是固定的，不允许有新词加入。 英语有四个主要词类和六个次要词类。 主要词类：

Noun (N) 名词：student Verb (V) 动词：like Adjective (Adj) 形容词：tall Adverb (Adv) 副词：loudly 次要词类：

Determiner (Det) 限定词：the, a, this, his Auxiliary (Aux) 助动词：can, do, will Preposition (Prep) 介词：in, at, over Pronoun (Pron) 代词：he, she, us, mine Conjunction (Conj) 连词：and, or, but, while Interjection (Int) 感叹词：oh, ah, eh 9. Phrasal categories 词组类型

Four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), prepositional phrase (PP), and adjective phrase (AP).

NP and VP are essential components of a sentence, comprising the subject and predicate. Important note: NP just contain a noun, VP just contain a verb, PP just contain a preposition and AP just contain an adjective.

通常讨论的词组类型有四种，分别是：名词词组，动词词组，介词词组和形容词词组。 名词词组和动词词组是句子中最重要的词组，因为它们构成了句子的主语和谓语。

重要：一个名词词组只包含一个名词，一个动词词组只包含一个动词，一个介词词组只包含一个介词，一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。 10. Grammatical relations 语法关系

The structural and logical function relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In English and many other languages, the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb. Strictly speaking, this statement is true only in terms of the structural subject（结构主语） and the structural object（结构宾语）. The logical subject （逻辑主语）and the logical object（逻辑宾语） may have different positions. 语法关系是指句子中名词词组和动词的关系，其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。从结构

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上看，英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前，宾语往往出现在动词止回。这种置动词之前的主语叫结构主语，置动词之后的宾语叫结构宾语。结构主语和结构宾语只是句子的形式主语和形式宾语，而意义上的主语和宾语才是句子的逻辑主语和逻辑宾语。逻辑主语是实施者，而逻辑宾语是受事者。逻辑主语和逻辑宾语在句子中的位置可以同形式主语和形式宾语在句子中的位置相同，也可以不同。如英语被动句中的形式主语是逻辑宾语，而形式宾语是逻辑主语。 11. Phrasal structure rules 短语结构规则

The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule.

短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。 Example 1: S → NP VP. The arrow is read as “consist of”, or “is rewritten as” 。

The rule is: a sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase.

在本例中，箭头读作“包含”或“重写为”。这样的规则就读作：一个句子包含或可以重写为一个名词词组和一个动词词组。 Example 2: NP → (Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)

A noun phrase consists of, or is rewritten as, an optional determiner, an optional adjective, an obligatory noun, an optional prepositional phrase, and/or an optional sentence.

这就是名词词组的短语结构规则，读作：一个名词词组包含或可以重写为一个限定词、一个形容词、一个名词、一个介词词组和（或）一个句子，其中名词是必须有的，其它是可选成分。 Example 3: VP → V(NP)(PP)(S) AP → A(PP)(S) PP → P NP

12. The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性

Significantly, these rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.

Although these rules are part of the rules and regulations of the grammar, they suffice to explain how language is “creative”, and how speakers with “finite” minds have the ability to produce and understand an infinite set of sentences. That is, the recursive property captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence.

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由于这些短语规则的循环性，运用它们可以造出无数句子，这些句子又可以是无限长的。 这些规则虽然只是语法规则的一部分，却足以解释为什么语言具有创造性，为什么说话人的记忆力是有限的，却能表达并理解无限的句子。这就是说，循环性体现了语言中的句子能够有更多的成分，并且使说话者能够在同一个句子中重复一些句法成分。 13. X-bar theory X标杆理论

NP/VP/AP/PP all must contain one obligatory word, we call XP. This means that XP must contain X, where XP stands respectively for NP/VP/AP/PP and X stands for N/V/A/P. The rule modified as: XP → (Specifier)X(Complement).

X 标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则理论。根据该理论，短语由指示语、核心词和补语组成，其中指示语和补语可有可无，但核心词却不可缺少。 14. Syntactic movement and movement rules 句法位移和移位规则 a) NP movement 名词词组位移

NP-movement occurs when a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice. Example: The man beat the child. / The child was beaten by the man.

Not all NP-movement are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice.

Example: It seems they are quite fit for the job. / They seem quite fit for the job.

NP “they” has moved from the subject position of the embedded clause to the matrix clause. 名词词组从原先所处的位置移至另一位置的句法现象叫做名词词组位移。例如，在主动语态句中当主语的名词词组和充当宾语的名词词组可以逆向移位，使句子转换成被动语态。

并不是所有的名词词组位移都和主动语态转被动语态相关。示例中的they由从句的主语位置位移到了主句的主语位置。 b) WH movement WH位移

WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. WH-movement is syntactically required when the sentence changes from a statement into a question.

WH位移能把句子从肯定句变为疑问句，在英语中不可缺少的。 c) Other types of movement 其它类型的位移 （1）General questions (一般疑问句) in English may also involve syntactic movement with AUX-movement. AUX-movement is the movement of an auxiliary verb, such as

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be/have/do/will/can/should, to the sentence-initial position. Example: She is an English professor. / Is she an English professor?

一般疑问句也会通过助动词移位引起句法移位，助动词移位即助动词移到句首的移位，助动词有be/have/do/will/can/should。

（2） For stylistic purposes, a post-verb adjective in an adverbial clause beginning with “though” may propose to the sentence initial position. Example:

Though she was sick, the woman fought with the wolf and saved her children. / Sick though she was, the woman fought with the wolf and saved her children. 由于文体的原因，以though开头的状语从句中位于动词后的形容词可以移到句首。 15. D-structure and S-structure 深层结构和表层结构

What syntactic movement suggests for the study of the grammar is that a sentence structure may have two levels of syntactic representation, one that exists before movement takes place, and the other that occurs after movement takes place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representations are commonly termed as D-structure (the deep structure) and S-structure (the surface structure). It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure, while the application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from the level of D-structure to that of S-structure. 句法位移对语法研究的启示是，一个句子结构可以有两个层次的句法表现，一个存在于位移发生之前，一个存在于位移发生之后。在正规的语言学研究中，这两种句法表现称为深层结构和表层结构。短语结构规则通过插入词汇在深层结构上生成句子，而应用句法位移规则又把句子从深层结构转化到表层结构。

Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.

由于并非所有句子都能发生句法位移，因而一个句子的深层结构和表层结构在不同的表现层次上是完全相同的。

16. Move α – a general movement rule 移动α规则

Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules, that is, the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move Alpha. Alpha is a Greek symbol used here to represent any

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constituent, and what Move Alpha says is “move any constituent to any place”.

It is too powerful, so the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain the movement power of the rule and which will stimulate that only “certain constituents” can move to only “certain positions.”

移动α规则是一条支配句法成分位移的普遍原则。如果X标杆理论规则将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合起来一样，该规则综合了所有的位移规则，可以解释所有语言中的一切位移现象。 如果一个成分可以移到任意位置，那么就会又不合乎语法的句子出现。规则应该有一些条件来移位能力，使得只有“某些成分”可以移动到“某些位置”。 17．Theory of universal grammar 普遍语法理论

Since early 1980s Noam Chomsky developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) know as the principle-an-parameters theory. UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles and also contains a set of parameters. 从八十年代初期开始，乔姆斯基发展了一种普遍语法理论，称为原则与参数理论。普遍语法是一个语言知识体系，是人类特有的天赋，它存在于正常人的头脑中。普遍语法包含一组广义条件，或广义原则，还包含一种参数。

18. General principles of universal grammar 普遍语法的广义原则

a) Case Condition. As is required by the Case Condition principle, a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by verb or preposition to the object position, or by auxiliary to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.

格条件原则。格条件原则要求名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定的，而主语的格是由助动词决定的。格条件理论说明了为什么名词词组只在主语和宾语的位置上出现。

b) Adjacency Condition. As is required by Adjacency Condition principle, a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. This condition explains why no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object.

毗邻条件。毗邻条件决定格分派，该条件要求格分派者和格接受者要相互毗邻。这一条件解释了为什么任何别的词组类型都不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。 19. The parameters of universal grammar 普遍语法的参数

Parameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or

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another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, for example, a plus or minus value, which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.

参数是普遍语法中的句法选项，它使广义原则能以一种或另一种方式进行操作并造成了不同自然语言之间在语言上的显著不同。一个参数若以某种可允许的方式设置，它就可以得到某种意义，如加或减的意义，这就使一种语言的语法和另一种语言的语法有很大不同。

a) UG is believed to contain a parameter wit the values (+ strict adjacency) and (- strict adjacency) set on the Adjacency Condition. With English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the (+ strict adjacency) value, while for French-type languages, the parameter is set to the other.

普遍语法被认为包含一个参数，这个参数的意义是设置在毗邻条件之上的（加严格毗邻）和（减严格毗邻）。英语属前者而法语属后者。

b) Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, known as the Directionality Parameter. This parameter offers a neat and consistent account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese. In English, VP → V NP while in Japanese, VP → NP V. 另一个参数与词序有关，它涉及格分派的方位，被称为方位参数。这一参数为英语和日语的动词词组的词序的类型差异提供了一个满意的、恰当的解释

Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学

1. What is semantics？什么是语义学？

Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。

2. Some views concerning the study of meaning 语义研究的几种主要理论 1) The naming theory 命名论

It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.

命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。

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2) The conceptualist view 意念论 The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.

意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。 3) Contextualism 语境论

Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.

语境论以这样的假设为基础：人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种：情景语境和语言语境。

语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境，语义不是抽象的，它存在于语境之中，它来自语境，取决于语境。

4) Behaviorism 行为主义论 Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.

语义的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处，它也把语义放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。 3. Sense and reference 意义和所指

They are two related but different aspects of meaning. 它们是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。

1) Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.

意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境的。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。

简单地说，意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的意义。

2) Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with

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the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. 所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西；涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。 简单地说，所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。 4. Major sense relations 主要意义关系 1） Synonymy 同义关系

Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。

According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups: a) Dialectal synonyms – synonyms used in different regional dialects.

British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language.

方言同义词 － 用在不同地域方言中的同义词。 英国英语和美国英语是英语的两大地理变体。 示例：

英国英语 美国英语 Autumn fall Lift elevator Flat department Windscreen windshield Torch flashlight

b) Stylistic synonyms – synonyms differing in style.

Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style. 文体同义词 － 在文体上有差异的同义词。

有同样意义的词可能在文体上，或者在正式程度上有所不同。也就是说，有些往往比较正式，有些比较随意，有些在问题上则是中性的。 示例：

Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent Start, begin, commence

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Kid, child, offspring

c) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning

There are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about. 情感意义或评价意义有所不同的同义词。

有着相同的意义却表达了使用者的不同情感的词语，这些词暗示使用者对他所谈论的事情的态度或倾向。 示例：

Collaborator 合作者/ Accomplice 同谋者，帮凶 Like, love, admire, adore, worship

Economical, frugal, thrifty, mean, miserly, stingy

d) Collocational synonyms – synonyms differing in their collocation.

Some synonyms differ in their collocation, i.e., in the words they go together with. This is a matter of usage.

搭配同义词 － 同义词在其搭配上各不相同，即能和这些不同的同义词相配的词各不相同。 示例：

Accuse…of charge…with rebuke…for

e) Semantically different synonyms –synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. 语义上不同的同义词 － 同义词的意义非常接近，但却有细微差别。 示例：

Amaze 暗示困惑和迷惑 astound 暗示难以置信

Escape 意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事 flee 意味匆匆离开 2） Polysemy 多义关系

The same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.

同一个单词可能有一个以上的意义，这就是我们所说的一词多义，这样的词叫多义词。一个词越常用，它就越可能获得一个以上的意义。 示例：

Table 一词最初只有一个意义，很可能指一块石板或木板，这叫做其原始意义。后来它逐渐获得

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了它现在所指称的其它意义。 3） Homonymy 同音/同形异义关系

Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that word having different meaning have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.

When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. 同形异义是指意义不同的词有着相同的语言形式的现象，即不同的词发音上或拼写上，或者两个方面都相同。

两个单词在发音上相同时，叫同音异义词。 两个单词在拼写上相同时，叫同形异义词。

两个单词在发音和拼写上都相同时，叫完全同形异义词。 示例：

同音异义词： rain/ reign; night/ knight; piece/ peace 同形异义词： bow v./ bow n.; tear v./ tear n.; lead v./ lead n. 完全同形异义词：fast adj./ fast v.; scale n./ scale v. 4） Hyponymy 上下义关系

Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the super-ordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same super-ordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.

上下义关系是指一个具有一般性、包容性的词与一个更为具体的词之间的意义关系。

意义更具有一般性的词叫上义词，意义更为具体的词叫下义词。同一个上义词的多个下义词叫并列下义词。 示例：

上义词： flower

下义词： rose（玫瑰花）, tulip（郁金香）, carnation（康乃馨）, lily（百合花）, morning glory （牵牛花） 上义词： animal

下义词： dog, cat, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fax, bear

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5） Antonymy 反义关系

The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning, words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.

反义关系用以指意义的相反。意义上相反的词叫反义词。 a) Gradable antonyms 分级反义词

Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of degree.

一些反义词是级别上的对立，因为一对这样的反义词中间常有其它表示程度的词。意义相反实际上只是程度问题。 示例：

Old 和 young 是反义词，但它们代表两个极端，中间还存在着代表年老和年轻的不同程度的其它语言形式，如 middle-aged, mature, elderly. b) Complementary antonyms 互补反义词

A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.

互补反义词具有这样的特征，否定其中一个就意味着肯定另一个。也就是说，是一个非此即彼、非彼即此的问题。 示例：

Male/ female alive/dead

c) Relational opposites 关系反义词

Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.

在意义上现实出逆向关系的一对词语叫关系反义词。 示例：

Wife/ husband father/ son teacher/ pupil doctor/ patient buy/ sell above/ below 5. Sense relations between sentences句子间的意义关系 1) X is synonymous with Y. X和Y 是同义关系 示例：

X: He is a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life.

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如果X是真的，Y也是真的，如果X是假的，Y也是假的。 2) X is inconsistent with Y. X和Y是前后矛盾关系 示例：

X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.

如果X是真的，Y就是假的，如果X是假的，Y就是真的。 3) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X) X蕴涵Y (Y是X的蕴涵) 示例：

X: John married a blond heiress (女继承人). Y: John married a blond.

蕴涵是一种包含关系。如果X蕴涵Y，X的意义就为Y所包含。

4) X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X) X预示Y (Y是X的先决条件) 示例：

X: John‟s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike.

5) X is a contradiction. X是个矛盾句 示例：

X: My unmarried sister is married to bachelor. X句子本身自相矛盾，它永远是假的。

6) X is semantically anomalous. 句子X在语义上反常 示例：

X: The table has bad intentions. X 在语义上反常，它就是荒唐的。 6. Analysis of meaning

1) Componential analysis – a way to analyze lexical meaning 语义成分分析法 － 一种词义分析法

The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters.

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一个单词的意义可以分析为被称作语义特征的意义成分。用加减号来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在还是省缺，这些特征符号通常用大写字母来表示。

One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.

成分分析的一个好处是，通过列出某些单词的语义特征，就可能显示这些单词在意义上有什么联系。 示例：

Man 和 woman 这两个单词有 ＋HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE这些共同的特征，但在MALE这一特征上不同。

Man 和 boy这两个单词有 ＋HUMAN, +ANIMATE, +MALE这些共同的特征，但在ADULT这一特征上不同。

2) Predication analysis – a way to analyze sentence meaning 述谓结构分析 － 一种句义分析法

Linguists have proposed different ways to analyze the meaning of sentences. They might differ in their framework of analysis, but they share the aim to abstract the meaning of sentences. What we are going to introduce briefly is the predication analysis proposed by the linguist G Leech.

语言学家们提出了不同的分析句子意义的方法。他们的分析基准体系可能有所不同，但他们的目标都是使句子意义抽象化。我们现在要介绍的是英国语言学家G里奇提出的述谓结构分析法。 In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, and it is analyzed into such grammatical components as subject, predicate, and attribute.

对句子进行语法分析时，句子被视为基本单位，它被分析谓诸如主谓语和定语这样的语法成分。 In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms.

对句子进行意义分析时，基本单位称为述谓，这是对句子意义的抽象化。这一方法适用于所有句式，包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。

A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.

An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.

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A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments n a sentence.

一个述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。

一个论元是一个述谓的一个逻辑参与者，与一个句子中的一个或数个名词性成分大体一致。 一个谓词是关于论元的陈述，或者说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。 句子的语法形式不影响其语义述谓，下列所有句子具有同样的述谓： Tom smokes. Tom is smoking. Tom has been smoking. Tom, smoke! Does Tom smoke?

这是同一语义述谓TOM(SMOKE)在语法上的多种体现。

According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication (containing two arguments), one-place predication (containing one argument), and no-place predication (containing no argument).

根据一个述谓中所包含的论元的数目，我们把述谓结构分为两位述谓结构（包含两个论元）、单位述谓结构（包含一个论元）和零位述谓结构（没有论元） 示例：

The building is next to the library. (Two-place predication) He is snoring. (One-place predication) It is late. (No-place predication)

Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学

1. What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？

Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used.

语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。

由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研

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究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2. Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学

Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.

语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3. Context 语境

Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.

语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。 The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.

共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。

4. Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义

The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5. Speech act theory 言语行为理论

Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50‟s of the 20th century.

言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪

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50年代提出的。

According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking. 根据言语行为理论，我们说话的同时是在实施某种行为。

According to speech act theory, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.

根据言语行为理论，说话者说话时可能同时实施三种行为：言内行为，言外行为和言后行为。 a) A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax lexicon and phonology.

言内行为是说出词、短语和分句的行为， 它是通过句法、词汇和音位来表达字面意义的行为。 b) An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker‟s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.

言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为，它是在说某些话时所实施的行为。

c) A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.

言后行为是通过某些话所实施的行为，或讲某些话所导致的行为，它是话语所产生的后果或所引起的变化，它是通过讲某些话所完成的行为。

American philosopher-linguist John Searle classified illocutionary acts into five general types. Each type has a common, general purpose.

美国的哲学语言学家约翰.舍尔把言外行为分为五类，每一类行为都有一个共同的、普遍的目的。这五大类是：

a) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true 阐述类：陈述或描述说话者认为是真实的情况 示例：

I have never seen the man before. / the earth is globe. b) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something 指令类：试图使听话者做某些事情 示例：

Open the window! / Would you like to go to the picnic with us?

c) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action

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承诺类：说话者自己承诺未来要有一些行为。 示例：

I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail. d) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state 表达类：表达对某一现状的感情和态度。 示例：

I‟m sorry for the mess I have made. / It‟s really kind of you to have thought of me. e) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something 宣告类：通过说话引起骤变。 示例：

I now declare the meeting open. / I fire you. Important remark:

All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same illocutionary point, but they differ in their strength or forth.

每一类中的行为都有同样的目的，但具有同样目的的言外行为可能具有不同程度的言外之力。 6. Principle of conversation 会话原则

American philosopher Paul Grice concluded that natural language had its own logic. His idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle (CP).

美国哲学家保罗.格赖斯提出的会话原则旨在解释会话意义。他提出自然语言有其独特的逻辑关系。他认为会话的最高原则是合作，称为合作原则。

To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle: 在最高原则，即合作原则下，人们在交际中要遵守如下四个准则： a) The maxim of quantity 数量准则

Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).

使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。

Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. 不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。 b) The maxim of quality 质量准则

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Do not say what you believe to be false. 不要说自己认为不真实的话。

Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。 c) The maxim of relation 关联准则 Be relevant. 说话要贴切，有关联。 d) The maxim of manner 方式准则

Avoid obscurity of expression. 避免晦涩的词语。 Avoid ambiguity. 避免歧义。

Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 说话要简要（避免累赘）。 Be orderly. 说话要有条理。

It is interesting and important to note that while conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they do not always observe these maxims strictly. For various reasons these maxims are often violated, or “flouted”. Most of these violations give rise to what Grice calls “conversational implicature”. In other word, when we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect.

虽然会话参与者几乎总是遵守合作原则的，但并非严格遵守。由于种种原因，这些原则经常被违反，尔对合作原则的违反则导致产生格赖斯所说的“会话含意”。也就是说，对任何一种合作原则的违反，都会使语言变得间接。 示例1：

Do you know where Mr. X lives?

Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city. 违反数量准则 示例2：

Would you like to come to our party tonight? I‟m afraid I‟m not feeling so well today. 违反质量准则 示例3：

The hostess is an awful bore. Don‟t you think? The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren‟t they? 违反关联准则 示例4：

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Shall we get something for the kids? Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M. 违反方式准则

悟力、学习动机、个性以及认知方式。

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